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However, these methods of estimation would include only those young people who are more visible and who are more likely to come to the notice of welfare workers Marriot In New Zealand there are almost no hard data available Saphira Another way to estimate numbers of under-age prostitutes is to ask adult prostitutes about their sex work as children. Five percent of sex workers in both groups had begun at 15 years old or younger, and the same study showed that sex workers generally had been initiated into sex at a much earlier age than other girls and women Perkins et al.
Since it is illegal for massage parlours to employ underyear-olds, this would suggest that about a third of the workers began sex work on the street. The reasons for entering into sex work are complex, and are influenced by factors such as family breakdown, prior victimisation, homelessness, poverty, lack of education, drug use, the isolation of indigenous and ethnic communities, growing consumerism, and unemployment. An Australian report on child prostitution, including some children under the age of 10, reported that children were engaged in commercial sexual activities primarily to meet basic life needs such as accommodation, food, drugs, clothing, and money with which to purchase goods and services International Save the Children Alliance While the same has been said in at least one New Zealand provincial town personal communication Police Youth Aid when the madame who approached the girls was arrested, this practice ceased and there have been no other reports of this occurring.
While New Zealand sex workers have a high degree of independence from pimps Daley and Plumridge , there are some young sex workers who are controlled by gangs National Bureau of Criminal Intelligence Much Western research has been based on runaways. In an Australian study of runaways, about a quarter had engaged in sex work for survival Wilson and Arnold In one of the first books written on sexual abuse, Herman outlines how child sexual abuse, and more particularly incest, trains girls for prostitution:. The father, in effect, forces the daughter to pay with her body for affection and care which should have been freely given.
In doing so, he destroys the protective bond between parent and child and initiates his daughter into prostitution. Herman However, not all child sex workers are runaways, and not all runaways resort to sex work. Janis and Heid-Bracey have identified three broad categories of child prostitutes:. What is clear is that once a young person becomes actively involved in sex work they face a host of hazards and difficulties. The literature available points to some common themes; young people participating in commercial sexual activities are likely to have fled dysfunctional families, they are susceptible to unsafe sex practices, and exposed to drug and alcohol use and abuse.
Fitzgerald There are numerous hazards in undertaking sex work, including rape, assault, robbery, abduction, clients demanding their money back after sex, refusing to drive the worker back to the street, or refusing to wear condoms. It is seen as more dangerous to work on the streets than in massage parlours Plumridge and Abel , and it is on the streets that many children begin sex work. However, the emotional risks and damage may be greater than the physical.
Case studies and the testimonies of child victims speak of trauma so deep that they are often unable to return to a normal way of life International Labour Organization , as a New Zealand study attests:. Six of the ten street workers in the study were working on the streets before they were 15, three others started at 16 or 17 …. These young women recounted how they had left school and family and lived hand-to-mouth, sometimes literally on the streets, living rough in the open, under bridges, in abandoned buildings with no more than a mattress and a blanket Jeannette or even crawling into clothing collection bins Suzanne.
In most cases it meant squatting with friends, strangers, or clients. Others were in some form of custodial care. So the picture is of a group of young women frequently homeless, often with few family attachments and characteristically poor schooling. They had little capacity to earn anything but a low wage, some were not old enough to work legally or be entitled to any state benefit in their own right, they were powerless and driven to prostitution.
Plumridge The unique developmental characteristics of early adolescents may make them especially vulnerable to the numerous problems associated with life on the streets Unger et al. All children and early adolescents are vulnerable to exploitation due to their lack of social, cognitive, sexual and physical maturity. Young people are protected by the various consumer laws, but depend on adults to explain how to use the laws to make complaints to get redress.
In sexual matters, not only do they lack the cognitive understanding of the transaction and its long-term consequences, they are also still sexually immature physically and socio-emotionally Johnson Most children and young adolescents are not sufficiently developed physically to engage in penetrative sex. The physiologically immature reproductive tract in pre-menarchal girls is much less capable of resisting invasion and subsequent damage by sexually transmitted micro-organisms Moscicki et al. The sexual activity is often violent, and this can cause internal damage, destroying the normal vaginal and infection barriers and putting children at greater risk than adults for contracting sexually transmitted disease Lemmey and Tice Characteristics of early adolescents may make them especially susceptible to maladaptive behaviour Unger et al.
Due to the dysfunctional families they may have come from, despite their street knowledge the intellectual and socio-emotional development of young sex workers may be slower than others of the same age. This may be particularly true of those who have suffered from physical and sexual abuse Briere Some abuse survivors have learned that to think ahead is to anticipate another night of abuse, and thus never accomplish this developmental task.
There is also a tendency for abuse survivors to view the world as hostile, making it difficult for young sex workers to trust those who may be able to help them. In a child labour study of sexually abused or sexually exploited children, the author commented about how difficult it was to obtain information from the participants. Many of the children interviewed were introverted and reluctant to talk about themselves and their health problems, especially with unfamiliar people.
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High levels of sexual activity and self-injury have previously been viewed as poor impulse control, but can be better described as tension reduction. Frequent and rapidly initiated sexual behaviour can make use of such sex as a distraction or excitement to maintain high levels of adrenaline and the avoidance of emptiness Briere Doing sex work can cater to this sexual impulsivity.
A developmental factor that may keep young people working on the streets is the social group in which their need to have peers is met. For the young survivor of abuse there has often been no time for healing during the early pubertal years and the young sex worker is likely to be further traumatised from the hazards of the work Farley and Hotaling In some way the risks of this work may fulfil urges to self-injury or at least self-distraction. It is becoming acknowledged that there are particular issues for prostitutes who are not heterosexual, not the least the double stigma of being both queer 6 and a prostitute.
More problematic, however, are the risks that this double stigma implies, particularly the dangers of being assaulted or raped. The stigma, together with a frequent incidence of sexual abuse experienced by these young people, also results in risks of suicide and other kinds of self-harm personal communications Te Aronga Hou programme staff — There has been little published research about transgender prostitutes, let alone those who are under-age, probably due to their relative invisibility.
However, people who work with these youth report a high incidence of sex work among transgender teens. A New Zealand Evening Post article The homeless teens he had encountered were mainly from the transsexual community.
In a study of London male sex workers, the six young men interviewed reported considerable abuse before prostituting Gibson They left home very early due to sexual abuse, and were vulnerable to exploitation in their needs for survival and affection. Most stated that they used alcohol and dissociation to survive the commercial sex. Not all transsexuals have been sexually abused when young, but most have been harassed for not conforming to the notion of how boys should be. Once on the street, learning how to successfully negotiate the use of condoms and avoid rape and assaults is difficult.
Worth reported that all the gender-liminal workers in her study had been subject to violence both prior to working on the street and again as sex workers. Most of them reported having had unprotected anal sex in the past, but all now used condoms, although some were still doing anal sex. Thus transgender prostitution may carry a high risk of HIV infection.
In countries such as India, Brazil and Thailand, men in prostitution are required to cross-dress or transsex, and this is increasing in Australia Jeffreys Prestage Their minority sexual identity, coupled with homelessness and drug involvement as well as sex work, can complicate the developmental transitions associated with adolescence Sullivan However Worth noted that her transgender respondents showed few signs of hopelessness, possibly due to the strong bond they had with other queens and their relationship with a prescribed role within their indigenous cultures.
Understanding the nature and behaviour of people who perpetrate commercial sexual exploitation is crucial to its prevention Grant et al. The motives and preferences of the clients of under-age prostitutes defy generalisation. Some have very set preferences for children of a particular age and gender; others seek situations of power and control; and still others are opportunistic and, while seeking commercial sex, coincidentally obtain the services of a child Grant et al. The advent of the internet has made it easier for people to collect child pornography, encouraging the direct sexual exploitation and abuse of children, and this is believed to be an influence on the increase in sexual offending against children Carr Knowledge of the availability of young people available for sex work appears to have some influence on where clients look for sex.
This suggests that there is a large pool of potential clients that we have no information on. However, it is apparent that some men are very focused on their pursuit of children. The seeking of juvenile sexual partners may be part of a continuum of social and sexual transgressions.
Some men combat their lack of social assertion by the acceptability of mail-order brides. For others, this lack is heightened by belief structures and cognitive distortions that allow them to sexually seek out children Conte Most societies cloak the use of power in justification, denial or righteousness.
Few of those who exploit children consider themselves to be abusive or exploitative. Exploiters may see the child as instigating the sex, consenting to sex, or obtaining benefits from having sex with an adult, thus denying that any harm has been done Ward et al. These beliefs are reinforced by media promotion of youth, childhood and innocence as sexually desirable, assisting the sex offender to accommodate the youthful victim in his repertoire Saphira The client sees himself entering into a commodity exchange rather than a social relationship.
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Davidson suggests that:. Buyers are generally expected to act solely on the basis of self-interest, and feel no connection with, or moral responsibility towards, those who produce the commodities they purchase. Davidson In the same way, dominant groups within a culture can sexually exploit children from stigmatised groups without it interfering with their view of themselves as moral and good.
A large proportion of exploiters seek out victims who are from different social groups than their own, particularly in countries with colonised indigenous minorities.
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While there has been little systematic research in this area, there is considerable evidence of child prostitution among colonised indigenous peoples in many countries, including New Zealand, Australia and Canada, most of it from people working with these youth. In New Zealand there is growing evidence of a relationship between colonisation, racial stigma, childhood abuse and neglect, and under-age, gay and transgender prostitution personal communication, Te Aronga Hou and New Zealand Family Planning Association workers In Canada, aboriginal boys and girls also make up a greater percentage of children involved in commercial sexual exploitation than would be expected by their numbers in the general population, and this is also seen in other colonised nations Save the Children Fund There is little published about aboriginal sex workers and even less about any under-age aborigines, but concern has been voiced about risks to children in aboriginal communities since the AIDS crisis Sharp Indigenous children and children from non-English-speaking populations have been identified as being especially vulnerable to commercial sexual exploitation due to the isolation of their communities from the mainstream, and therefore the lesser visibility of the risks Grant et al.
Where this holistic approach is applied, benefits have been evident. Several overseas programmes have endeavoured to implement the United Nations guidelines. As a result there has been a major reduction in the number of children in northern Thailand entering into prostitution over the last 20 years. Through family planning, a decline in fertility has made it easier for parents to educate their children.
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